What Does All of This Have to do With the Question of Hiring and Retaining More Women?

Research conducted both in the United States and internationally clearly demonstrates that women police officers rely on a style of policing that uses less physical force. They are better at defusing and de-escalating potentially violent confrontations with citizens and less likely to become involved in problems with use of excessive force. Additionally, women officers often possess better communication skills than their male counterparts and are better able to facilitate the cooperation and trust required to implement a community policing model. In an era of costly litigation, hiring and retaining more women in law enforcement is likely to be an effective means of addressing the problems of excessive force and citizen complaints.

As an additional benefit, female officers often respond more effectively to incidents of violence against women – crimes that represent one of the largest categories of calls to police departments.7, 8 Increasing the representation of women on the force is also likely to address another costly problem for police administrators – the pervasive problem of sex discrimination and sexual harassment – by changing the climate of modern law enforcement agencies.

Because women frequently have different life experiences than men, they approach policing with a different perspective, and the very presence of women in the field will often bring about changes in policies and procedures that benefit both male and female officers.

All of these factors can work to the advantage of those in the police profession and the communities they serve. These advantages will be discussed in greater detail below to provide impetus for the type of improvements outlined throughout the self-assessment guide. We begin with the research demonstrating that female officers are equally capable as their male counterparts, and go on to summarize some of the work documenting the unique advantages that women offer to the contemporary field of law enforcement.

Six Advantages for Law Enforcement Agencies That Hire and Retain More Women

1. Female Officers Are Proven to be as Competent as Their Male Counterparts.

A number of early evaluations were conducted to determine the effectiveness of male versus female officers in law enforcement agencies such as Washington DC,9 St. Louis,10 New York City,11 Denver,12 Newton, Massachusetts,13 Philadelphia,14 California,15 and Pennsylvania.16

• The results clearly indicated that "men and women were equally capable of police patrol work."17

• Similar research conducted in other countries has reached the same conclusion,18 as do more recent efforts that find no meaningful difference between male and female officers in: their activities or productivity on patrol;19 their commitment to law enforcement organizations;20 their response to violent confrontations;21 and their performance evaluations received both at the academy and on the job.22    In fact, some studies indicate areas of police performance in which women excel.

• In one study, female police executives were found to be more flexible, emotionally independent, self-assertive, self-confident, proactive, and creative than their male counterparts.

• Other research consistently demonstrates that women in law enforcement have more education than their male peers.23

Clearly, the body of evidence suggests that male and female police officers are equally capable to successfully meet the demands of the law enforcement profession. As one researcher observed, "not all women are able to handle all police jobs — but neither are all men…[Moreover,] in some respects at least, women are better suited for police work than men."24

"Police work used to be like a laborer’s job...the only requirement was that you had to be tough. Now, that’s not what we’re looking for...[The job] is all about knowing how to talk to people. We screen for drug use, criminal background, but we don’t do much screening for people who can get along with other people...A good cop knows how to defuse the situation by talking it out."25

As this quote indicates, a "good cop" uses communication skills in every aspect of the job and can often reduce the need for force by de-escalating potentially violent situations. By this criterion, women clearly make "good cops," as demonstrated in research both in the U.S. and internationally over the last 25 years.

• To date, there are a number of studies demonstrating that female officers utilize a less authoritarian style of policing that relies less on physical force — despite research showing women respond to similar calls and encounter similar dangers on duty and are as effective as their male counterparts in performing police duties.26

Other recent research finds no difference in the level of force used by male verses female officers during the course of routine professional duties.27 Additionally, women are less likely to engage in high-risk pursuits that may harm individuals involved.28 Yet regardless of whether female and male officers use comparable levels of force during routine activity, it is clear that women are significantly less likely to be involved in employing both deadly force29 and excessive force.30 (See Appendix A for the Feminist Majority Foundation and National Center for Women & Policing’s study, "Gender Differences in the Cost of Police Brutality and Misconduct: A Content Analysis of LAPD Civil Liability Cases: 1990-1999.")

The question of force lies at the heart of the traditional reluctance to hire women into policing. A number of studies document that both police officers and community members are concerned that women are not strong enough or aggressive enough for police work.31

• Yet physical strength has not been shown to predict either general police effectiveness32 or the ability to successfully handle dangerous situations.33

• In fact, there are no documented cases of negative outcomes due to the lack of strength or aggression exhibited by a female officer.34

• Rather, some have suggested that alternative characteristics might be preferable to physical strength, such as the ability to defuse potential violence35 and maintain composure in situations of conflict.36 It is therefore important to note that female officers not only exhibit more reasoned caution than their male counterparts, but also that they increase this tendency in their male partners.37

Given that an estimated 80-90% of policing involves non-criminal or service functions,38 the emphasis in traditional policing on physical strength might actually serve as a liability to police departments seeking to successfully meet the demands of their community. In addition, it serves to "weed out" women (and men) who could potentially implement an alternative model of policing that focuses less on physical force and more on interpersonal communication.39

A shift away from an emphasis on physical force is likely to capitalize on the interpersonal skills that female officers possess, not only in equal measure to their male counterparts, but often to a greater degree. Perhaps for this reason, at least two studies have documented a preference among community members for female officers to respond to potentially dangerous situations.40 Unfortunately, these interpersonal skills have not traditionally been emphasized in selection standards and background investigations. In fact, a history of perpetrating violence has often been ignored when screening potential candidates.41

However, in today’s environment of ever-increasing litigation, law enforcement agencies cannot afford to overlook any means of reducing their risk of excessive force in favor of a more service-oriented style of policing.42 By hiring and retaining more women, departments can go a long way toward transforming their focus to one that emphasizes interpersonal skills and cooperation with the community.

Community policing represents a new approach to modern law enforcement, emphasizing communication and cooperation with citizens as well as informal problem solving. It is therefore important to note that women officers receive more favorable evaluations and fewer citizens complaints than their male counterparts.43

• To illustrate, one study found that male officers were the target of 50% more insults by citizens and almost three times as many threats or attempts at injury in comparison with their female peers.44

• In another study, police training instructors indicated that female officers have an advantage over their male peers in several areas, including empathy toward others and interacting in a way that is not designed to "prove" something.45

For their part, female officers are reportedly less cynical in their view of citizens,46 which is noteworthy because such an orientation is associated with a decreased likelihood of using both reasonable and/or excessive force.47 Women in law enforcement are also less likely to be involved in misconduct,48 and they report greater support for the principles of community policing than their male colleagues.49 It is no wonder, then, that many have suggested hiring more female officers as a way of improving the public image of the police department.50

4. More Female Officers Will Improve Law Enforcement’s Response to Violence Against Women.

Research indicates that 2-3 million women are physically assaulted each year in the U.S. by their male partners,51 and that 21-34% of American women are physically assaulted by a male intimate sometime during their adult lives.52 In addition, the most recent national estimates indicate that one out of six American women will be sexually assaulted53 and one out of 12 will be stalked54 during their lifetime. Clearly, the extent of the problem highlights the critical importance of police response to crimes of violence against women. The cost of failure in this particular area is high, both in human and financial terms.

• Ineffective police response has been found to deter victims of domestic violence from reporting future assaults.55

• Inappropriate response also adds to the risk of litigation, as departments are increasingly being held liable for failing to properly handle domestic violence. This is especially true in cases where a protective order has been issued.56 Fortunately, the benefits of success are also substantial, as effective police response has been found to both improve the self-esteem of battered women57 and increase the likelihood that they will leave abusive relationships.58 Because the police response to crimes of violence against women is so critical, it is worth noting that female officers have long been viewed as more effective in this area than their male counterparts.59 This perception is shared by the community,60 police training instructors, 61 and female officers themselves.62 It is also supported by research.

• A 1985 study found that female officers demonstrated more concern, patience, and understanding than their male colleagues when responding to calls of domestic violence. 63

• In the same study, battered women who had contact with a female officer rated the police response as more helpful than those without such contact. They also rated the performance of female officers more favorably. Given that domestic violence represents the single largest category of calls made to police, this ability is critically important to the success of contemporary law enforcement in responding to the needs of the community.64

Of course, it is insufficient to discuss the police response to violence against women without addressing the possibility that responding officers have committed these crimes themselves. Domestic violence has been documented in as many as 40% of police families,65 and law enforcement agencies around the county are increasingly faced with the question of how to respond when these crimes are reported.66 Many have noted the traditional failure of police departments to respond effectively to officer-involved domestic violence and described the grim reality thus faced by victims.67

To improve the situation, the International Association of Chiefs of Police recently issued a number of policy recommendations.68 Because violence against women is vastly more likely to be committed by men rather than women,69, 70 another obvious recommendation is to increase the number of female law enforcement professionals. Increasing women’s numbers in the ranks of law enforcement has the potential for lessening the chance that an officer who has perpetrated such a crime will handle crimes of violence against women.

5. Increasing the Presence of Female Officers Reduces Problems of Sex Discrimination and Harassment Within an Agency.

Research documents that women in law enforcement continue to face a variety of obstacles, including negative attitudes, gender discrimination, and sexual harassment.

• Research consistently demonstrates that the negative attitude of male colleagues is the single most significant problem reported by female officers.71

• Other work documents the widespread prevalence of gender discrimination, underutilization of female officers, and sexual harassment.72

• In multi-departmental studies as many as 63-68% of the female officers report having experienced sexual harassment.73

This climate of "widespread gender bias"74 seen in contemporary police agencies has a number of deleterious effects, not the least of which is the negative impact on the retention and promotion of female officers.

In general, although women enter and remain in the policing profession for many of the same reasons that men do, including the desirable pay and benefits, the challenges associated with the job, and the opportunity to help others,75 they often leave for reasons that are very different, including unique stressors not faced by their male counterparts. These include:

• Problems with co-worker gossip, training, lack of promotional opportunity, administrative policies that disadvantage female officers, and pressures to demonstrate their competence beyond what is expected by their male colleagues.76

• Decreased trust in their colleagues.77

• More physical consequences of stress.78

• More indicators of burnout and greater intention to quit.79

One of the most prominent impacts, however, deals with the lack of promotional opportunities. Male and female officers report the same desire for promotion,80 yet these opportunities are seen as less available to women in comparison with their male counterparts.81 This is certainly part of the explanation for the higher turnover rate that is consistently seen among female officers, both at the academy and on the job.82

Extensive research reveals that sexual harassment is much more likely in male-dominated workplaces and in fields that have been traditionally considered masculine.83 Hiring and retaining more women within a law enforcement agency will demonstratively reduce the exposure to liability by simply reducing the numeric under-representation of female officers. The increased representation of women can also have the benefit of transforming the very climate within a law enforcement agency and reducing the prevalence of gender discrimination, under-utilization, and sexual harassment.84

6. The Presence of Women Can Bring About Beneficial Changes in Policy for All Officers.

Lewis Sherman envisioned as early as 1973 that police departments would be held liable for their under-representation of female officers and that hiring more women would not only bring them into compliance with the U.S. Constitution but also yield improvements in the procedures for selection, recruitment, and retention of all sworn personnel.85 As he argued:

"If a woman 5 feet, 3 inches tall can perform the job of patrol, why not a man who is the same height? If a woman needs better physical defense training, might not also a man? If a woman defuses a violent situation without having to make an arrest, shouldn’t she or any man who does the same be given a high rating for effective law enforcement performance? Departments could move toward making their selection and training standards job-related, as well as toward development of new measures of police performance."86

Improvements such as these would inevitably benefit both female and male employees within law enforcement. The Police Foundation similarly noted in 1974 that:

"The introduction of women will create an incentive...to examine many management practices which are less acceptable now that they must be applied to men and women alike. This may result in the development of improved selection criteria, performance standards, and supervision for all officers."87

They further concluded that the expanded supply of police personnel, the reduced cost of recruiting, and better community representation were additional benefits of hiring more female officers.88

Given the many difficult challenges facing modern police agencies, the advantages for hiring more women have never been more clear. However, at the current rate of hiring, it is inevitable that women will remain under-represented within law enforcement unless traditional policies and practices are changed substantially. The good news is that changes in policies can have a dramatic impact on the recruitment and retention of women police officers.

• For example, when the Albuquerque Police Department instituted a range of policies under the "New Workplace Project" funded by the U.S. Department of Labor, the percentage of female recruits increased from 10% to 25%, and they were retained at the same rate as their male counterparts.92

• Similarly, the Tucson Police Department increased their percentage of female recruits from 10% to 29% by implementing active strategies to retain women. Furthermore, clear initiatives to address sexual harassment have been documented to better prepare officers to prevent or stop such behavior.93

Based on both research and practical experience, there is every reason to believe that such changes will yield benefits not only to women within the police profession, but also to their male counterparts, the larger police organization, and the communities they serve.

1Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To CrimeFighter: Women in United States Municipal Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995).

2 National Center for Women and Policing, "Equality Denied: The Status of Women in Policing," (Los Angeles: National Center for Women & Policing, 1999), 1-17.

3 Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police Chief, September 1998, 32 (7).

4 Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies’ Personnel Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6.

5 Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53.

6 Victor E. Kappeler, Stephen F. Kappeler, and Rolando V. Del Carmen, "A Content Analysis of Police Civil Liability Cases: Decisions of the Federal District Courts 1978-1990," Journal of Criminal Justice 21 (1993): 325-337.

7 Robert J. Homant and Daniel B. Kennedy, "Police Perceptions of Spouse Abuse - A Comparison of Male and Female Officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13 (1985): 29-47. Daniel B. Kennedy and Robert J. Homant, "Battered Women’s Evaluation of the Police Response," Victimology: An International Journal 9, no. 1 (1984): 174-179.

8 Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women Service Groups. Domestic Violence Factsheet.

10 Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438.

11 Sichel et al., "Women on Patrol," National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (1977).

12 H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service Commission, 1977).

14 Bartell & Associates, "The Study of Police Women Competency in the Performance of Sector Police Work in the City of Philadelphia," (1978). (cited in Martin & Jurik, 1996)

17 Susan Ehrlich Martin and Nancy C. Jurik, Doing Justice, Doing Gender: Women in Law and Criminal Justice Occupations (Thousand Oaks California: SAGE Publications, 1996).

18 For a review of international research, see Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don’t Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38.

19 John R. Snortum and John C. Beyers, "Partol Activities of Male and Female Officers as a Function of Work Experience," Police Studies 6 (1983): 63-42.

20 Louis W. Fry and Sue Greenfeld, "An Examination of Attitudinal Differences Between Policewomen and Policemen," Journal of Applied Psycholoy 65, no. 1 (1980): 123-126.

21 Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1 (1987): 78-85.

23 Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. Patricia W. Lunneborg, Women Police Officers: Current Career Profile (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1989).

24 Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don’t Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38.

25 Timothy Egan, "Image of ‘Man’ Behind Badge Changing," New York Times, April 25 1991, A14.

26 Sean A. Grennan, "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens," Journal of Police Science and Administration 15, no. 1 (1987): 78-85. Gary R. Perlstein, "Policewomen & Policemen A Comparative Look.," Police Chief 39, no. 3 (1972): 72-74. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438. Feminist Majority Foundation and National Center for Women & Policing, "Gender Differences in the Cost of Police Brutality and Misconduct: A Content Analysis of LAPD Civil Liability Cases: 1990-1999," (Los Angeles: Feminist Majority Foundation & National Center for Women & Policing, 2000).

27 Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60. Joel Garner, John Buchanan, and John Hepburn, "Understanding the Use of Force by and Against the Police," U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice , no. 11-96 (1996): 11.

29 Horvath, "The police use of deadly force: A description of selected characteristics of intrastate incidents," Journal of Police Science Administration 15 (1987): 226-38. (cited in Riksheim & Chermak, 1993).

30 Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17.

31 Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don’t Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B. Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science 5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347.; R. Linden, "Women in Policing - A study of lower mainland Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachments," Canadian Police College Journal 7 (1984): 217-229. M. Vega and I.J. Silverman, "Female officers as viewed by their male counterparts," Police Studies 5 (1982): 31-39. Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63. Nancy C. Jurkin, "An Officer And A Lady: Organizational Barriers To Women Working As Correctional Officers in Men’s Prisons," 32, no.(1985): 375-388.

32 Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," in Police Roles in the Seventies: Professionalization in America, ed. Jack Kinton (Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1973), 77-95.

33 Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and Realities," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120.

34 M.T. Charles, "Performance and socialization of female recruits in the Michigan State Police training academy," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10 (1981): 209-223. (cited in Balkin, 1988).

35 Marlene W. Lehtinen, "Sexism in Police Departments," Trial Magazine, September 1976, 52-55.

36 C.J. Rogers, "Women in Criminal Justice: Similar and unique obstacles to their acceptance in law enforcement and corrections" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, 1987). (cited in Balkin, 1988).

37 Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering: Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).

38 Daniel J. Bell, "Policewomen: Myths and Realities," Journal of Police Science and Administration 10, no. 1 (1982): 112-120 J. McGeorge and J.A. Wolfe, "Comparison of attitudes between men and women police officers - A preliminary analysis," Criminal Justice Review 1 (1976): 21-33. R.G. Taleny, "Women in Law Enforcement: An expanded role," Police 14 (1969): 49-51.

39 Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993): 203-236.

40 C.G. Sulton and R.D. Townsey, "A Progress Report on Women in Policing," (Washington, DC: Police Foundation, 1981). (both cited in Winnard, 1986). J.L. Sicehl et al., "Women on Patrol: A Pilot Study of Police Performance in New York City," (Washington, DC: National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, 1978).

41 Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17.

42 The city of Los Angeles Police Department paid out $32 million in 1999 in settlements and judgements, triple from $10.2 million in 1998 (Los Angeles Times, January 11, 2000).

43 H.W. Bartlett and A. Rosenblum, Policewomen Effectiveness (Denver: Denver Civil Service Commission, 1977). (cited in Bakin, 1988). Anderson, & Gervais, 1973 Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol," Manpower 5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20.

44 Patricia Marshall, "Policewomen on Patrol," Manpower 5, no. 10 (1973): 14-20. (cited in Bell, 1982).

45 Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training: Some aspects of organizational response," in The Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed. Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

46 Alissa Pollitz Worden, "The Attitudes of Women and Men in Policing: Testing Conventional and Contemporary Wisdom," Criminology 31, no. 2 (1993): 203-236.

47 Robert E. Worden, "The Causes of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of Force," in And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995), 31-60.

50 Anthony Vastola, "Women in Policing: An Alternative Ideology," The Police Chief, January 1977. Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

51 M.A. Straus and R.J. Gelles, Physical Violence in American Families: Risk factors and adaptions to violence in 8,145 families (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1990). M.A. Straus, R.J. Gelles, and S. Steinmetz, Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family (Garden City, NJ: Anchor Press, 1980). ( both cited in Browne, 1993).

52 I.H. Frieze et al., "Types of Battered Women" (paper presented at the Annual Research Conference of the Association for Women in Psychology, Santa Monica, CA, 1980). D.E.H. Russell, Rape in Marraige (New York: Macmillan, 1982). (cited in Browne, 1993).

53 Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Stalking in America: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998), 19.

54 Violence Against Women Grants Office, "Stalking and Domestic Violence: The Third Annual Report to Congress under the Violence Against Women Act," (Washington, D.C.: Violence Against Women Grants Office, 1998), 67.

55 E.M. Abel and E.K. Suh, "Use of police services by battered women," Social Work 32, no. November/December (1987): 526-8. (cited in Martin, 1997).

56 Greg Anderson, "Sorichetti v. City of New York Tells the Police that Liability Looms for Failure to Respond to Domestic Violence Situations," University of Miami Law Review 40, no. 307 (1985): 333-358.

57 Mary C. Brown, "The Plight of Female Police: A Survey of NW Patrolmen," The Police Chief 61, no. 9 (1984): 50-53.

58 M. Pagelow, Woman-Battering: Victims and Their Experiences (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1981). (cited in Martin, 1997).

59 Dorothy Moses Schulz, From Social Worker To CrimeFighter: Women in United States Municipal Policing (Praeger Publishers, 1995). Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.; Katharine van Wormer, "Are Males Suited to Police Patrol Work?," (1981): 41-44.

60 Joseph Balkin, "Why Policemen Don’t Like Policewomen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 1 (1988): 29-38. Kenneth W. Kerber, Steven M. Andes, and Michele B. Mittler, "Citizen Attitudes Regarding the Competence of Female Police Officers," Journal of Police Science 5, no. 3 (1977): 337-347. Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3, no. 4 (1975): 434-438. Karin E. Winnard, "Policewomen and the People They Serve," Police Chief, August 1986, 62-63.

61 Diane L. Pike, "Women in Police Academy Training: Some aspects of organizational response," in The Changing Roles of Women in the Criminal Justice System: Offenders, Victims, and Professionals, ed. Imogene L. Moyer (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1985), 250-270. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

62 Catherine A. Martin, H.E. McKean, and Lane J. Veltkamp, "Post-traumatic stress disorder in police and working with victims: A pilot study," Journal of Police Science and Administration 14 (1986): 98-101. Tineke Ritmeester and Melanie Shepard, "Violence Against Women: Do Female Police Officers Make a Difference?" (paper presented at the Minnesota Association of Women Police, Fall Training Conference, Duluth, Minnesota, October 1991), 29. (cited in Lunneborg, 1989).

63 R.J. Homant and D.B. Kennedy, "Police perceptions of spouse abuse - a comparison of male and female officers," Journal of Criminal Justice 13 (1985): 29-47.

64 The Women’s Advisory Council To The Los Angeles Police Commission, "A Blueprint for Implementing Gender Equity in The Los Angeles Police Department," (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles Police Commission, 1993), 76.

65 Peter H. Neidig, Harold E. Russell, and Albert F. Seng, "Interspousal Aggression in Law Enforcement Families: A Preliminary Investigation," Police Studies: International Review of Development 30, no. Spring (1992): 30-38.

66 Larry Boyd et al., "Domestic Assault Among Police: A Survey of Internal Affairs Policies," (Arlington: Arlington, TX Police Department, Southwestern Law Enforcement Institute of the Southwestern Legal Foundation, 1995), 10.

67 John Feltgen, "Domestic Violence: When the Abuser is a Police Officer," The Police Chief, October 1996, 42-47. Lonald D. Lott, "Deadly Secrets: Violence in the Police Family," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (1995): 12-16.

68 Jacob C. Clark, "Is Anybody Out There?: Stiff Competition for Recruits Fuels Agencies’ Personnel Woes," Law Enforcement News, April 10 1998, 1, 6.

69 Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, "Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey," (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999), 16.

71 Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth, "Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement: Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988," International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205. Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983): 46-53.

72 Carole G. Garrison, Nancy Grant, and Kenneth McCormick, "Utilization of Police Women," The Police Chief, September 1998, 32 (7). Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17. Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in Policing," (1990).)

73 Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Susan E. Martin, "On The Move: The Status of Women in Policing," (1990).

74 Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, "Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department: Summary," (Los Angeles: Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, 1991), 17.

75 Samual S. Janus et al., "Women in Police Work - Annie Oakley or Little Orphan Annie," (1988): 124-127. Eric D. Poole and Mark R. Pogrebin, "Factors Affecting the Decision to Remain in Policing: A Study of Women Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 16, no. 3 (1988): 49-55. William M. Timmins and Brad E. Hainsworth, "Attracting and Retaining Females in Law Enforcement: Sex-Based Problems of Women Cops in 1988," International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology (1988): 197-205.

76 Joanne Belknap and Jil Kastens Shelley, "The New Lone Ranger: Policewomen on Patrol," American Journal of Police 12, no. 2 (1992): 47-75. Carol Ann Martin, "Remarks: Women Police and Stress," The Police Chief, March 1983, 107-109. Judie Gaffin Wexler and Deana Dorman Logan, "Sources of Stress Among Women Police Officers," Journal of Police Science and Administration 11, no. 1 (1983): 46-53.

78 Virginia E. Pendergrass and Nancy M. Ostrove, "A Survey of Stress in Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 12, no. 3 (1984): 303-309.

79 M.H. Silbert, "Job stress and burnout of new police officers," Police Chief 1982, 46-48. (cited in Penndergrass & Ostrove, 1984).

80 Susan Ehrlich Martin, Breaking and Entering: Policewomen on Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).

81 Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155. Donald G. Zytowski, "Kuder Occupational Interest Survey scores and self-descriptive information on 348 women police" (Unpublished rawdata, 1989). (cited in Lunneborg, 1989). This is also true for female correctional officers (Jurik, 1985).

82 Lincoln J. Fry, "A Preliminary Examination of the Factors Related to Turnover of Women in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (1983): 149-155.; Peter Horne, Women in Law Enforcement, 2nd ed. (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1980).

84 Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977).

85 Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

86 Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1, no. 4 (1973): 383-394.

89 Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in Belknap & Shelley, 1992).

90 Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977). (cited in Belknap & Shelley, 1992).

91 Henry Etkowitz et al., "The Paradox of Critical Mass for Women in Science," Science 266, no. 5182 (1994): 51 (4). Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977).

92 Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53.

93 Joseph Polisar and Donna Milgram, "Recruiting, Integrating and Retaining Women Police Officers: Strategies that Work," The Police Chief, October 1998, 42-53.

Assessing a Law Enforcement Agency

Many approaches can be used to conduct an assessment of a law enforcement agency. 

Assessment by Chief Administrator

The administrator of the agency may be able to make several improvements in the agency’s practices just by reading this guide and identifying suggestions that will help solve an immediate problem. Many of the suggestions in the guide have minimal fiscal impact and are within the power of the chief administrator to implement.

The chief administrator may decide to establish internal assessment teams to look at certain sections of the guide and conduct an assessment of the agency’s policies and procedures. The teams can then make recommendations for improvements.

When conducting an assessment of the personnel policies and practices of a law enforcement agency, the chief administrator may also include a diverse group of employees and community members in the process. Labor unions, command staff, civil service administrators, elected officials, and community members all can have input into developing improvements. Conducting a self-assessment provides law enforcement administrators with an excellent opportunity to utilize a community-policing approach to improving agency practices. To most effectively conduct a comprehensive assessment, the agency administrator should give the process a high priority. Sufficient resources must be allocated, including staff support to the assessment team. As many women as possible, from all ranks within the agency, should be involved in the assessment process.

Recommended Process for Medium-to-Large Agencies

. Establish an assessment committee consisting of:

. A diverse group of agency managers and field personnel, representing a cross- section of units and functions.

. Women from all ranks of the agency, including civilian women.

. Labor union representatives.

. Personnel experts with experience working to increase women in non-traditional jobs. The Equal Employment Opportunity director and representatives from the public entity with the responsibility for entry and promotion testing should be included.

. Criminal justice professors with expertise in issues related to women in policing and community policing.

. Community representatives, especially those with expertise in women’s employment and sex discrimination issues (for example, representatives of the American Association of University Women, YWCA, Women’s Bar Association, and National Organization for Women) or attorneys with expertise in employment and civil rights laws.

. Liaisons from the public entity that controls the law enforcement budget.

. Elected officials or their representatives.

. Convene a full-day meeting to discuss the assessment process, introduce all members of the committee, review the status of women in the law enforcement organization, and make committee assignments.

. Establish working committees by subject matter. We suggest that at least four committees be formed. (Additional committees may be formed as needed.)

4) A committee on family issues, sexual harassment, retaliation, internal affairs, and the discipline system.

. Establish a timeline for assessment and the development of recommendations. The process of assessing and developing recommendations should be completed in 6 months, if possible. A 6-month goal will help keep the committees focused.

. Assign adequate staff to provide information and participate in the assessment process.

. One command-level person should be designated as the responsible party to provide the agency administrator with monthly briefings and to ensure that a comprehensive review is conducted.

. Designate a person from the law enforcement agency to be the coordinator for all requests for information from the committees. This person will arrange for law enforcement personnel to appear at committee meetings and answer questions, as well as providing documents requested by the committees.

. Hold a staff meeting with all high-ranking law enforcement personnel to explain the charge to the committees and the commitment of the agency to cooperate with the process.

. When the committees have completed their assessments and prepared a final report, all members of the assessment team must be willing to listen to their ideas for improvement. Many times, they have new approaches that will help improve the operations of the law enforcement agency. In addition, the committee can be extremely helpful in obtaining budget funds from the elected officials and in gaining community support for the changes.

. Determine what changes will be made and develop a detailed time/task plan for implementation. Specific responsibilities for implementing changes should be assigned.

. Assign an implementation committee and a chairperson to monitor the progress of implementing recommended changes and report quarterly to the agency head and elected officials.

Because small agencies are limited in the amount of resources and staff available, the following is a modified assessment process:

. Form a committee consisting of:

. The command person in charge of recruiting, hiring, or training.

. Women employees, if possible. If there are no women officers in the agency, seek assistance from a neighboring agency with women officers.

. A woman community representative.

. A personnel expert.

. A lawyer experienced in civil rights and employment law.

. Convene a meeting to discuss the assessment process, introduce all members of the team, learn about the status of women in the law enforcement organization, and make assessment assignments. Assign assessments to members of the team according to their expertise and time available.

. Establish a timeline for assessment and the development of recommendations.

. When the members have completed their assessment, reconvene the committee and discuss the findings of each part of the assessment. Prepare a final report with recommendations on changes that need to be made. Recommend priorities for making the changes.

. When recommendations have been approved, assign a high-ranking person to monitor progress and report quarterly.

When an agency is working to improve the environment for women employees, the use of gender-neutral language is crucial. One of the easiest ways to write or speak in an inclusive manner is to always use plurals. For example, instead of saying "the officer will write his/ her report," it is much easier to say "officers will write their reports." During the assessment process, it would be desirable to have one person assigned to review the manual of procedures and other similar publications to identify areas where such revision is desirable.

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